Repertoires of contention also existed before the birth of the modern social movement (a period most scholars identify as the late 18th to early 19th century). While the term is used most often in the social movement theory context, it can be applied to any political actors. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic modes of contention at the intersection of physical and digital evolved, described by Yunus Berndt as peopleless protests. Recent scholarship has introduced a notion that in addition to the "traditional" and "modern" repertoires, a new, "digital", repertoire may be emerging. For yet another example, consider that in the recent years, Internet-focused repertoires have been developed (see hacktivism). The changing nature of repertoires of contention can be seen in a sample element of the mid-18th century British repertoire of contention, the rough music: a humiliating and loud public punishment inflicted upon one or more people who have violated the standards of the rest of the community. Early repertoires, from the time before the rise of the modern social movement, included food riots and banditry. They are determined both by what the actors know how to do, and what is expected from them. Repertoires change over time, and can vary from place to place. Īctions and tools that belong to common repertoires of contention include, but are not limited to: creation of special-purpose associations and coalitions, public meetings, solemn processions, vigils, rallies, demonstrations, sit-ins, petition drives, statements to and in public media, boycotts, riots, strikes and pamphleteering. However, in addition to providing options, repertoires can be seen as limiting, as people tend to focus on familiar tools and actions, and innovation outside their scope is uncommon (see diffusion of innovations). Repertoires are often shared between social actors as one group (organization, movement, etc.) finds a certain tool or action successful, in time, it is likely to spread to others.
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